Privity of Contract: Contracts for the Benefit of Third Parties [1996] EWLC 242 (31 July 1996)

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PRIVITY OF CONTRACT:
CONTRACTS FOR THE BENEFIT OF
THIRD PARTIES

CONTENTS

SECTION A: BACKGROUND

PART I:INTRODUCTION

PART II: THE PRESENT LAW AND CALLS FOR REFORM

1. The Present Law

2.1

(1) A Brief Statement of the Third Party Rule in Contract

2.1

(2) Development of the Third Party Rule

2.2

(3) Existing Exceptions to, or Circumventions of, the Third Party Rule

2.8

(a) Trust of the Promise

2.8

(b) Covenants Concerning Land

2.10

(c) Tort of Negligence

2.13

(d) Agency

2.15

(e) Assignment

2.16

(f) Collateral Contracts

2.18

(g) Techniques Used to Enable Third Parties to Take the Benefit of Exclusion Clauses

2.19

(h) Promisee's Remedies Assisting the Third Party

2.36

(i)Damages

2.37

(ii)Specific Performance and a Stay of Action

2.47

(i) Statutory Exceptions

2.52

(i)Life Insurance

2.53

(ii)Fire Insurance

2.54

(iii) Motor Insurance

2.55

(iv)Third Parties' Rights Against Insurers

2.56

(v)Insurance by Those with Limited Interests

2.57

(vi)Bills of Exchange

2.58

(vii)Bills of Lading

2.59

(viii)Law of Property Act 1925, Section 56(1)

2.60

(ix)Companies Act 1985, Section

2.61

(x)Package Travel, Package Holidays and Package Tours Regulations 1992

2.62

2. Calls for Reform

2.63

SECTION B: PRELIMINARY ISSUES

PART III: ARGUMENTS FOR REFORM

1. The Intentions of the Original Contracting Parties are Thwarted

3.1

2. The Injustice to the Third Party

3.2

3. The Person Who Has Suffered the Loss Cannot Sue, While the Person Who Has Suffered No Loss Can Sue

3.3

4. Even if the Promisee Can Obtain a Satisfactory Remedy for the Third Party, the Promisee May Not be Able to, or Wish to, Sue

3.4

5. The Development of Non-Comprehensive Exceptions

3.5

6. Complexity, Artificiality and Uncertainty

3.6

7. Widespread Criticism Throughout the Common Law World

3.7

8. The Legal Systems of Most Member States of the European Union Allow Third Parties to Enforce Contracts

3.8

9. The Third Party Rule Causes Difficulties in Commercial Life

3.9

(1)Construction Contracts

3.10

(2)Insurance Contracts

3.24

10.Conclusion

3.28

PART IV:PRECEDENTS FOR REFORM

1. The Law Revision Committee Report

4.2

2. Abrogation of Third Party Rule in Other Common Law Jurisdictions

4.5

(1) Western Australia

(2) Queensland

(3) New Zealand

(4) United States

PART V:THE FORM OF THE LEGISLATION

1. A Detailed Legislative Scheme?

5.1

(1) Further Exceptions in Specific Instances

5.3

(2) Abolishing the Rule Preventing Recovery by the Promisee of Third Party's Loss

5.4

(3)Removal of the Bar to Third Party Enforcement

5.5

(4)Reform by Means of a Detailed Legislative Scheme

5.7

2. Judicial Development of Third Party Rights

5.10

3. Reform of the Promisee's Remedies?

5.12

PART VI:THE THIRD PARTY RULE AND CONSIDERATION

1. Introduction and Consultation

6.1

2. Consideration Must Move From the Promisee

6.3

3. The Joint Promisee Exception

6.9

4. Reforming Privity Without Reforming Consideration: the Deeper Policy Question

6.13

SECTION C:CENTRAL REFORM ISSUES

PART VII:THE TEST OF ENFORCEABILITY

1. Consultation and Our Recommendation

7.1

2. The First Limb of the Test of Enforceability

7.10

3. The Second Limb of the Test of Enforceability

7.17

(1) General Aspects of the Second Limb

7.17

(2) Negligent Will-Drafting

7.19

(3) The Application of the Second Limb of the Test to Various Hypothetical Situations

7.28

(4) The Application of the Second Limb of the Test to Some Past Cases

7.45

4. The Rejected Tests

7.52

5. A Special Test of Enforceability for Consumers?

7.54

PART VIII:DESIGNATION, EXISTENCE, AND ASCERTAINABILITY OF THIRD PARTY

1. Designation

8.1

2. Existence of Third Party

8.5

3. Pre-Incorporation Contracts: A Special Case?

8.9

4. Ascertainability of Third Party and Certainty

8.17

PART IX:VARIATION AND CANCELLATION

1. Provisional Proposals and Consultation

9.1

2. The Two Extreme Positions

9.5

(1) Variation or Cancellation at Any Time

9.5

(2) No Variation or Cancellation

9.10

3. Possible "Crystallisation" Tests

9.11

(1) Awareness

9.12

(2) Reliance

9.14

(3) Detrimental Reliance

9.15

(4) Acceptance

9.16

(5) Adoption Expressly or by Conduct

9.17

4. Choice of Test

9.18

5. The Reliance Test: Further Details

9.27

(1) Need the Promisor Be Aware Of, or Forsee, the Reliance?

9.27

(2) Material Reliance

9.31

(3) Protection of the Third Party's Reliance or Expectation Interest?

9.32

(4) Burden of Proof

9.34

(5) Reliance by Someone Other Than the Third Party

9.35

6. Reservation of a Right to Vary or Cancel

9.37

7. Can the Relevant Crystallisation Test be Laid Down in the Contract?

9.41

8. Crystallisation Where There Is More Than One Third Party

9.43

9. Creating Irrevocable Rights

9.45

10.Judicial Discretion to Authorise Variation or Cancellation

9.48

PART X:DEFENCES, SET-OFFS AND COUNTERCLAIMS

1. Introduction

10.1

2. Precedents for Reform

10.5

(1) Law Revision Committee/Western Australia/Queensland

10.5

(2) United States

10.6

(3) New Zealand

10.7

3. Options for Reform

10.8

4. Defences, Set-Offs and Counterclaims Available Only Against the Third Party

10.17

5. Third Party Enforcing an Exclusion or Limitation Clause

10.22

6. The Line Between Benefits and Burdens

10.24

PART XI:OVERLAPPING CLAIMS

1. More Than One Plaintiff: Claims by the Third Party and by the Promisee

11.1

(1) Promisee's Rights

11.1

(2) Promisee's Rights Where Performance by Promisor to Third Party

11.5

(3)Promisee's Rights Where Release of/Settlement with Promisor by Third Party

11.7

(4) Releases Where More Than One Third Party

11.9

(5)Third Party's Rights Where Performance by Promisor to Promisee (Rather than to Third Party), or Release of/Settlement with Promisor by Promisee

11.11

(6)Priority of Action?

11.14

(7)Avoidance of Double Liability

11.16

2. More Than One Defendant: Claims by the Third Party Against the Promisor, and Against the Promisee on a Pre-Existing Liability

11.23

PART XII:EXISTING EXCEPTIONS

1. Preserving Existing Exceptions

12.1

2. Should Existing Legislation Conferring Rights of Enforceability on Third Parties Preclude a Third Party Taking Rights under Our Proposed Legislation?

12.5

(1) Contracts for the Carriage of Goods by Sea

12.7

(2) Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods by Road, Rail or Air

12.12

(3) Contracts Contained in Bills of Exchange, Promissory Notes and Other Negotiable Instruments

12.16

3. Should This Opportunity Be Taken to Reform the Third Parties (Rights Against Insurers) Act 1930 and the Married Women's Property Act 1882?

12.18

(1)Third Parties (Rights Against Insurers) Act 1930

12.19

(2)Married Women's Property Act 1882

12.22

PART XIII:CONSEQUENTIAL AMENDMENTS

1. Our General Approach

13.1

2. The Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977

13.9

3. Limitation Act 1980

13.14

PART XIV:MISCELLANEOUS ISSUES

1. Joinder of Promisee

14.1

2. Assignment of the Third Party's Right

14.6

3. Contracts for the Sale of Land

14.8

4. Choice of Law

14.12

5. Arbitration Agreements and Jurisdiction Agreements

14.14

6. Commencement of the Legislation

14.20

SECTION D:SUMMARY

PART XV:SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

The Law Commission

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